Arterial hypertension in children. Clinical guidelines 2025
I. V. Leontyeva,
O. A. Kislyak,
A. A. Aleksandrov,
S. A. Ushakova,
M. E. Aksenova,
L. A. Balykova,
L. V. Kozlova,
I. A. Kovalev,
A. V. Kurganova,
I. L. Nikitina,
I. V. Plotnikova,
V. B. Rozanov,
D. I. Sadykova https://doi.org/10.38109/2075-082X-2025-4-5-58
Abstract
Clinical guideline developers: Association of Pediatric Cardiologists of Russia, Russian Medical Society for Arterial Hypertension
Coding according to the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems: ICD-10: I10/ I11/ I12/ I13/ I15/ P29.2
Age group: Children
Year of approval: 2025
About the Authors
I. V. Leontyeva
Institute of Continuing Education and Professional Development, N.I. Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University;
Yu.E. Veltishcheva Scientific Research Clinical Institute of Pediatrics
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Irina V. Leontyeva, Professor, Dr. of Scien. (Med.), Professor of the Department of Innovative Pediatrics and Pediatric Surgery; Chief Researcher, Department of Pediatric Cardiology and Arrhythmology, Pediatric Cardiologist, Consultative and Diagnostic Department
Co-Chair of the Working Group, Member of the Association of Pediatric Cardiologists of Russia
1 Ostrovityanova st., Moscow 117513
2 Taldomskaya st., building 2, Moscow 125412
O. A. Kislyak
Russian Federation
Kislyak O.A., Dr. of Scien. (Med.), Professor (Moscow) — Co-Chair of the Working Group, Member of the RSH
A. A. Aleksandrov
Russian Federation
Aleksandrov A.A., Dr. of Scien. (Med.), Professor (Moscow) — Co-Chair of the Working Group, Member of the RSH
S. A. Ushakova
Russian Federation
Ushakova S.A., Dr. of Scien. (Med.), Professor (Tyumen) — Secretary of the Working Group, Member of the Association of Pediatric Cardiologists of Russia
M. E. Aksenova
Russian Federation
Aksenova M.E., Cand. of Scien. (Med.), (Moscow)
L. A. Balykova
Russian Federation
Balykova L.A., Dr. of Scien. (Med.), Professor, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Saransk), Member of the Association of Pediatric Cardiologists of Russia
L. V. Kozlova
Russian Federation
Kozlova L.V., MD Professor (Smolensk), Member of the Association of Pediatric Cardiologists of Russia
I. A. Kovalev
Russian Federation
Kovalev I.A., Dr. of Scien. (Med.), Professor (Moscow), Member of the Association of Pediatric Cardiologists of Russia
A. V. Kurganova
Russian Federation
Kurganova A.V., Cand. of Scien. (Med.), (Yevpatoriya)
I. L. Nikitina
Russian Federation
Nikitina I.L., Dr. of Scien. (Med.), Professor (St. Petersburg), Member of the Association of Pediatric Cardiologists of Russia
I. V. Plotnikova
Russian Federation
Plotnikova I.V., Dr. of Scien. (Med.), Professor (Tomsk), Member of the Association of Pediatric Cardiologists of Russia
V. B. Rozanov
Russian Federation
Rozanov V.B., Dr. of Scien. (Med.), Professor (Moscow), Member of the Association of Pediatric Cardiologists of Russia
D. I. Sadykova
Russian Federation
Sadykova D.I., Dr. of Scien. (Med.), Professor (Kazan), Member of the Association of Pediatric Cardiologists of Russia
References
1. Aleksandrov A.A., Kislyak O.A., Leontyeva I.V., Rozanov V.B. Diagnostics, treatment and prevention of arterial hypertension in children and adolescents. Russian recommendations (second revision). Cardiovascular Therapy and Prevention 2009;8:4;Suppl 1:1-32. (In Russ.)
2. Aleksandrov A.A., Kisliak O.A., Leontyeva I.V. Clinical guidelines on arterial hypertension diagnosis, treatment and prevention in children and adolescents. Systemic Hypertension. 2020;17(2):7-35. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/2075082X.2020.2.200126
3. Chazova I.E., Zhernakova Yu.V. on behalf of the experts. Clinical guidelines. Diagnosis and treatment of arterial hypertension. Systemic Hypertension. 2019;16(1):6-31. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/2075082X.2019.1.190179
4. Williams B., Mancia G., Spiering W., Agabiti Rosei E., Azizi M., Burnier M. 2018 ESC/ESH Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Eur Heart J. 2018;00:1-98. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehy339
5. Rosenberg WM, Gray JA et al. Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't. BMJ 1996, January; 312 (7023):71-72. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.312.7023.71
6. Andreeva N. S., Rebrova O. Yu., Zorin N. A., et al. Systems for assessing the reliability of scientific evidence and the persuasiveness of recommendations: comparative characteristics and prospects for unification. Medical Technologies. Assessment and Choice. 2012;4:10-24. (In Russ.)
7. Lurbe E., Agabiti-Roseic E., Cruickshankd J.K, Dominiczake A., Erdinef S., Hirthg A., et.al. 2016 European Society of Hypertension guidelines for the management of high blood pressure in children and adolescents. J Hypertens. 2016. Oct;34(10):1887-920. https://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0000000000001039
8. Flynn JT, Kaelber DC, Baker-Smith CM, Blowey D, Carroll AE, Daniels SR, de Ferranti SD, Dionne JM, Falkner B, Flinn SK, Gidding SS, Goodwin C, Leu MG, Powers ME, Rea C, Samuels J, Simasek M, Thaker VV, Urbina EM. Clinical Practice Guideline for Screening and Management of High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics. 2017;140(3):e20171904. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-1904
9. Leontyeva I.V., Alexandrov A.A., Rozanov V.B. Arterial hypertension in children and adolescents. Moscow, 2010. 246 p. (In Russ.)
10. Bochud M, Bovet P, Elston RC, Paccaud F, Falconnet C, Maillard M, et al. High heritability of ambulatory blood pressure in families of East African descent. Hypertension 2005;45:445-450. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.hyp.0000156538.59873.86
11. Rosner B, Cook NR, Daniels S, Falkner B. Childhood blood pressure trends and risk factors for high blood pressure: the NHANES experience 1988-2008. Hypertension. 2013;62(2):247-54. https://doi.org/10.1161/hypertensionaha.111.00831
12. Kelishadi R, Mirmoghtadaee P, Najafi H, Keikha M. Systematic review on the association of abdominal obesity in children and adolescents with risk factors. J Res Med Sci. 2015;20(3):294-307. PMID: 26109978. PMCID: PMC4468236.
13. Friedemann C, Heneghan C, Mahtani K, Thompson M, Perera R, Ward AM. Cardiovascular disease risk in healthy children and its association with body mass index: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2012;345:e4759. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.e4759
14. Flechtner-Mors M, Neuhauser H, Reinehr T, Roost HP, Wiegand S, Siegfried W. et al. APV initiative and the BMBF Competence Network Obesity. Blood pressure in 57,915 pediatric patients who are overweight or obese based on five reference systems. Am J Cardiol 2015;115:1587-1594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2015.02.063
15. Parker ED, Sinaiko AR, Kharbanda EO, et al. Change in weight status and development of hypertension. Pediatrics. 2016;137(3):e20151662. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-1662
16. Koebnick C, Black MH, Wu J, et al. High blood pressure in overweight and obese youth: implications for screening. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2013;15(11):793-805. https://doi.org/10.1111/jch.12199
17. Zhang T, Zhang H, Li S, et al. Impact of adiposity on incident hypertension is modified by insulin resistance in adults: longitudinal observation from the Bogalusa Heart Study. Hypertension. 2016;67(1):56-62. https://doi.org/10.1161/hypertensionaha.115.06509
18. Kaelber DC. IBM explorys cohort discovery tool. Available at: www.ibm.com/watson/health/explorys. Accessed February 3, 2017
19. Halbach SM, Martz K, Mattoo T, Flynn J. Predictors of blood pressure and its control in pediatric patients receiving dialysis. J Pediatr. 2012;160(4):621625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2011.09.046
20. Hartzell K, Avis K, Lozano D, Feig D. Obstructive sleep apnea and periodic limb movement disorder in a population of children with hypertension and/or nocturnal nondipping blood pressures. J Am Soc Hypertens. 2016;10(2):101-107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jash.2015.11.010
21. Archbold KH, Vasquez MM, Goodwin JL, Quan SF. Effects of sleep patterns and obesity on increases in blood pressure in a 5-year period: report from the Tucson Children’s Assessment of Sleep Apnea Study. J Pediatr. 2012;161(1):26-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2011.12.034
22. Au CT, Ho CK, Wing YK, Lam HS, Li AM. Acute and chronic effects of sleep duration on blood pressure. Pediatrics. 2014;133(1). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/133/1/e64
23. Aleksandrov A.A., Bubnova M.G., Kislyak O.A., et al. Prevention of cardiovascular diseases in childhood and adolescence. Russian recommendations. Russian Journal of Cardiology 2012; No. 6(Supplement 1):1-40. (In Russ.)
24. Dionne J. et al. Pediatric Nephrology Hypertension in infancy: diagnosis, management and outcome. January 2012:27(1):17-32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-010-1755-z
25. Hager A, Kanz S, Kaemmerer H,Schreiber C, Hess J. Coarctation Long-term Assessment (COALA):significance of arterial hypertension in a cohort of 404 patients up to 27 years after surgical repair of isolated coarctation of the aorta, even in the absence of restenosis and prosthetic material. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2007;134(3):738-745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcvs.2007.04.027
26. Di Salvo G, Castaldi B, Baldini L, Gala S, del Gaizo F, D’Andrea A, et al.Masked hypertension in young patients after successful aortic coarctation repair: impact on left ventricular geometry and function. J Hum Hypertens 2011;25:739-745. https://doi.org/10.1038/jhh.2010.118
27. Mattoo K. Evaluation and diagnosis of hypertension in infants between one month and one year of age. UpToDate This topic last updated: Jun 11, 2020.
28. O’Brien E, Parati G, Stergiou G, Asmar R, Beilin L, Bilo G, et al.,European Society of Hypertension Working Group on Blood Pressure Monitoring. European Society of Hypertension position paper on ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. J Hypertens 2013;31:1731-1768. https://doi.org/10.1097/hjh.0b013e328363e964
29. Wühl E, Witte K, Soergel M, Mehls O, Schaefer F, German Working Group on Pediatric Hypertension. Distribution of 24-h ambulatory blood pressure in children: normalized reference values and role of body dimensions. J Hypertens 2002;20:1995-2007. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004872-200210000-00019
30. Valent-Morić B, Zigman T, Zaja-Franulović O, Malenica M, Cuk M. The importance of ambulatory blood pressure monitoring in children and adolescents. Acta Clin Croat.2012;51(1):59-64. PMID: 22920003.
31. Swartz SJ, Srivaths PR, Croix B, Feig DI. Cost-effectiveness of ambulatory blood pressure monitoring in the initial evaluation of hypertension in children. Pediatrics. 2008;122(6):1177-1181. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-3432
32. Kavey RE, Kveselis DA, Atallah N, Smith FC. White coat hypertension in childhood: evidence for end-organ effect. J Pediatr. 2007;150(5):491-497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2007.01.033
33. Mitsnefes M, Flynn J, Cohn S, et al; CKiD Study Group. Masked hypertension associates with left ventricular hypertrophy in children with CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol.2010;21(1):137144. https://doi.org/10.1681/asn.2009060609
34. Lurbe E, Thijs L, Torro MI, Alvarez J, Staessen JA, Redon J. Sexual dimorphism in the transition from masked to sustained hypertension in healthy youths. Hypertension 2013;62:410-414. https://doi.org/10.1161/hypertensionaha.113.01549
35. Аверьянов С.Н., Амчеславский В.Г., Багаев В.Г., Тепаев Р.Ф. Определение скорости клубочковой фильтрации у детей: история и современные подходы. Педиатрическая фармакология. 2018;15(3):218-223. https://doi.org/10.15690/pf.v15i3.1901
36. Giraldi PF, Ambrogio AG, De Martin M, et al. Specificity of first-line tests for the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome: assessment in a large series. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92(11):4123-9. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2007-0596
37. Korbonits M, Blair JC, Boguslawska A et al. Consensus guideline for the diagnosis and management of pituitary adenomas in childhood and adolescence: Part 2, specific diseases//Nature Reviews Endocrinology; 2024;20(5):290-309. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-023-00949-7
38. Mancia G., Fagard R., Narkiewicz K., Redon J., Zanchetti A., Bohm M. et al. 2013 ESH/ESC guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2013;34:2159-2219. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/eht151
39. Khoury PR, Mitsnefes M, Daniels SR, Kimball TR. Age-specific reference intervals for indexed left ventricular mass in children. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2009;22:709-714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.echo.2009.03.003
40. Moller N C, Grontvve A., Wedderkopp N. Cardiovascular disease risk factors and blood pressure response during in exercise during in health children and adolescents the European Youth Heart study J Appl Physiol 2010;109:1125-1132. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00316.2010
41. Foster BJ, Khoury PR, Kimball TR, Mackie AS, Mitsnefes M. New reference centiles for left ventricular mass relative to lean body mass in children. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2016;29(5):441-447.e2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.echo.2015.12.011
42. Chinali M, Emma F, Esposito C, Rinelli G, Franceschini A, Doyon A, et al. Left ventricular mass indexing in infants, children, and adolescents: a simplified approach for the identification of left ventricular hypertrophy in clinical practice. J Pediatr 2016;170:193-198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2015.10.085
43. Lopez L, Colan SD, Frommelt PC, et al. Recommendations for quantification methods during the performance of a pediatric echocardiogram: a report from the Pediatric Measurements Writing Group of the American Society of Echocardiography Pediatric and Congenital Heart Disease Council. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2010;23(5):465-495; quiz 576-577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.echo.2010.03.019
44. Daniels SR, Kimball TR, Morrison JA, Khoury P, Witt S, Meyer RA. Effect of lean body mass, fat mass, blood pressure, and sexual maturation on left ventricular mass in children and adolescents. Statistical, biological,and clinical significance. Circulation. 1995;92(11):3249-3254. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.92.11.3249
45. Lubrano R, Travasso E, Raggi C, Guido G, Masciangelo R, Elli M. Blood pressure load, proteinuria and renal function in prehypertensive children. Pediatr Nephrol 2009;24:823-831. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-008-1077-6
46. Agarwal A, Kapur G, Altinok D. Childhood posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome: magnetic resonance imaging findings with emphasis on increased leptomeningeal FLAIR signal. Neuroradiol J 2015;28:638-643. https://doi.org/10.1177/1971400915609338
47. Hager A, Kanz S, Kaemmerer H,Schreiber C, Hess J. Coarctation Long-term Assessment (COALA):significance of arterial hypertension in a cohort of 404 patients up to 27 years after surgical repair of isolated coarctation of the aorta, even in the absence of restenosis and prosthetic material. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2007;134(3):738-745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcvs.2007.04.027
48. Di Salvo G, Castaldi B, Baldini L, Gala S, del Gaizo F, D’Andrea A, et al.Masked hypertension in young patients after successful aortic coarctation repair: impact on left ventricular geometry and function. J Hum Hypertens 2011;25:739-745. https://doi.org/10.1038/jhh.2010.118
49. Giordano U, Cifra B, Giannico S, Turchetta A, Calzolari A. Mid-term results, and therapeutic management, for patients suffering hypertension after surgical repair of aortic coarctation. Cardiol Young 2009;19:451-455. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1047951109990734
50. Elkins C, Fruh S, Jones L, Bydalek K. Clinical Practice Recommendations for Pediatric Dyslipidemia The Pediatr Health Care. Jul-Aug 2019;33(4):494-504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedhc.2019.02.009
51. Zimmet P, Alberti KG, Kaufman F, Tajima N. et a. IDF Consensus Group. The metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents – an IDF consensus report. Pediatr Diabetes. 2007 Oct;8(5):299-306. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5448.2007.00271.x
52. Dionne J.M., Harris K.C., Benoit G., FeberJ., Poirier L., Cloutier L. et al. Hypertension Canada's 2017 Guidelines for the Diagnosis, Assessment, Prevention, and Treatment of Pediatric Hypertension. CJC 2017;33(5):557-688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjca.2017.03.007
53. Moore L.L., Bradlee M.L., Singer M.R., Qureshi M.M., Buendia J.R., Daniels S.R. Dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) eating pattern and risk of elevated blood pressure in adolescent girls. Br J Nutr 2012;108(9):1678-1685. https://doi.org/10.1017/S000711451100715X
54. Torrance B., McGuire K.A., Lewanczuk R., McGavock J. Overweight, physical activity and high blood pressure in children: a review of the literature. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2007;3(1):139-149. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1994042/
55. Farpour-Lambert N.J., Aggoun Y., Marchand L.M., Martin X.E., Herrmann F.R.,Beghetti M. Physical activity reduces systemic blood pressure and improves early markers of atherosclerosis in pre-pubertal obese children. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009;54(25):2396-2406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2009.08.030
56. Kelley G.A., Kelley K.S., Tran Z.V. The effects of exercise on resting blood pressure in children and adolescents: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Prev Cardiol 2003;6(1):8-16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1520-037x.2003.01224.x
57. Tompkins C.L., Moran K., Preedom S., Brock D.W. Physical activity-induced improvements in markers of insulin resistance in overweight and obese children and adolescents. Curr Diabetes Rev 2011;7(3):164-170. https://doi.org/10.2174/157339911795843096
58. Luehrs RE, Zhang D, Pierce GL, Jacobs DR Jr, Kalhan R, Whitaker KM. Cigarette Smoking and Longitudinal Associations With Blood Pressure: The CARDIA Study. J Am Heart Assoc. 2021 May 4; 10(9):e019566. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.120.019566
59. Damasceno M.M., de Araújo M.F., deFreitas R.W., de Almeida P.C., Zanetti M.L. The association between blood pressure in adolescents and the consumption of fruits, vegetables and fruit juice--an exploratory study. J Clin Nurs 2011;20(11-12):1553-1560. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2702.2010.03608.x
60. Saneei P., Hashemipour M., Kelishadi R., Rajaei S., Esmaillzadeh A. Effects of recommendations to follow the dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) diet v. usual dietary advice on childhood metabolic syndrome: a randomized cross-over clinical trial. Br J Nutr 2013;110(12):2250-2259. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114513001724
61. Yang Q., Zhang Z, Kuklina E.V. et al. Sodium intake and blood pressureamong US children and adolescents. Pediatrics 2012;130(4):611-619. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-3870
62. Resnicow K., McMaster F., Bocian A., et al. Motivational interviewing and dietary counseling for obesity in primary care: an RCT. Pediatrics 2015;135(4):649–657. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-1880
63. Broccoli S., Davoli A.M., Bonvicini L. et al. Motivational interviewing to treat overweight children: 24-month follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics 2016;137(1):e20151979. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-197930/wjc.v6.i5.234
64. Croxtall J.D. Valsartan: in children and adolescents with hypertension. Paediatr Drugs 2012;14(3):201207. https://doi.org/10.2165/11208990-000000000-00000
65. Wühl E., Trivelli A., Picca S., Litwin M., Peco-Antic A., Zurowska A. et al. ESCAPE Trial Group. Strict bloodpressure control and progression of renal failure in children. N Engl J Med 2009;361(17):1639-1650. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0902066
66. Wells T., Blumer J., Meyers K.E. Valsartan Pediatric Hypertension Study Group. Effectiveness and safety of valsartan in children aged 6 to 16 years with hypertension. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2011;13(5):357-365. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-7176.2011.00432
67. Webb N.J., Shahinfar S., Wells T.G., Massaad R., Gleim G.W., Santoro E.P. et al. Losartan and enalapril are comparable in hypertension. reducing proteinuria in children. Kidney Int 2012;82(7):819-826. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.2012.210
68. Chu P.Y., Campbell M.J., Miller S.G., Hill K.D. Anti-hypertensive drugs in children and adolescents. World J Cardiol 2014;6:234-244. https://doi.org/10.4330/wjc.v6.i5.234
69. Schaefer F., Coppo R., Bagga A., Senguttuvan P., Schlosshauer R., Zhang Y. et al. Efficacy and safety of valsartan in hypertensive children 6 mon to 5 years of age. J Hypertens 2013;31(5):993-1000. https://doi.org/10.4330/wjc.v6.i5.23410.1097/HJH.0b013e32835f5721
70. Baker-Smith C.M., Benjamin D.K., Califf R.M. Cough in pediatric patients receiving angiotensinconverting enzyme inhibitor therapy or angiotensin receptor blocker therapy in randomized controlled trials. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2010;87:668-71. https://doi.org/10.4330/wjc.v6.i5.23410.1038/clpt.2009.231
71. Soffer B, Zhang Z, Miller K, Vogt BA, Shahinfar S. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-response study of the effectiveness and safety of lisinopril for children with hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 2003 Oct;16(10):795-800. PMID: 14553956. https://doi.org/10.4330/wjc.v6.i5.23410.1016/s0895-7061(03)00900-2
72. ESCAPE Trial Group; Wühl E, Trivelli A, Picca S, Litwin M, Peco-Antic A, Zurowska A, Testa S, Jankauskiene A, Emre S, Caldas-Afonso A, Anarat A, Niaudet P, Mir S, Bakkaloglu A, Enke B, Montini G, Wingen AM, Sallay P, Jeck N, Berg U, Caliskan S, Wygoda S, Hohbach-Hohenfellner K, Dusek J, Urasinski T, Arbeiter K, Neuhaus T, Gellermann J, Drozdz D, Fischbach M, Möller K, Wigger M, Peruzzi L, Mehls O, Schaefer F. Strict bloodpressure control and progression of renal failure in children. N Engl J Med. 2009 Oct 22;361(17):1639-50. PMID: 19846849. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0902066
73. Sakarcan A, Tenney F, Wilson JT, Stewart JJ, Adcock KG, Wells TG, Vachharajani NN, Hadjilambris OW, Slugg P, Ford NF, Marino MR. The pharmacokinetics of irbesartan in hypertensive children and adolescents. J Clin Pharmacol. 2001 Jul;41(7):742-9. PMID: 11452706. https://doi.org/10.1177/00912700122010645.
74. Schaefer F., Litwin M., Zachwieja J., Zurowska A., Turi S., Grosso A. et al. Efficacy and safety of valsartan compared to enalapril in hypertensive children: a 12-week, randomized, double-blind, parallel-group study. J Hypertens 2011;29(12):2484-2490. https://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e32834c625c
75. Trachtman H., Hainer J.W., Sugg J. Efficacy, safety, and pharmacokinetics of candesartan cilexetil in hypertensive children aged 6 to 17 years. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2008;10:743-50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-7176.2008.00022
76. Hazan L., Hernández Rodriguez O.A., Bhorat A.E., Miyazaki K., Tao B., Heyrman R. et al. Assessment of Efficacy an Olmesartan in Pediatric Hypertension Study Group. A doubleblind, dose-response study of the efficacy and safety of olmesartan medoxomil in children and adolescents with hypertension. Hypertension 2010;55(6):1323-1330. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.147702
77. Simonett G.D., von Vigier R.O., Konrad M., Rizzi M., Fossali E., Bianchetti M.G. Candesartan cilexetil in children with hypertension or proteinuria: preliminary data. Pediatr Nephrol 2006;21(10):1480-1482. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-006-0144-0
78. Flynn J.T. Efficacy and safety of prolonged amlodipine treatment in hypertensive children. Pediatr Nephrol 2005;20(5):631-635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-004-1781-9
79. Trachtman H., Frank R., Mahan J.D., Portman R., Restaino I., Matoo T.K. et al. Clinical trial of extended release felodipine in pediatric essential hypertension. Pediatr Nephrol 2003;18:548-553. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-003-1134-0
80. Sica D.A., Carter B., Cushman W., Hamm L. Thiazide and loop diuretics. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2011;13:639-643. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-7176.2011.00512
81. Karnes J.H., Cooper-DeHoff R.M. Antihypertensive medications: benefits of blood pressure lowering and hazards of metabolic effects. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2009;7:689-702. https://doi.org/10.1586/erc.09.31
82. Li J.S., Flynn J.T., Portman R., Davis I., Ogawa M., Shi H. et al. The efficacy and safety of the novel aldosterone antagonist eplerenone in children with hypertension: a randomized, double-blind, doseresponse study. J Pediatr 2010;157(2):282-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.02.042
83. Meyers R.S., Siu A. Pharmacotherapy review of chronic pediatric hypertension. Clin Ther 2011;33:1331-1356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2011.09.003
84. Logacheva I.V., Gunicheva E.A. Long-term indapamide retard therapy in adolescents with Stage I arterial hypertension. Cardiovascular Therapy and Prevention. 2011;10(2):6-12. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.15829/1728-8800-2011-2-6-12
85. Batisky D.L., Sorof J.M., Sugg J., Llewellyn M., Klibaner M., Hainer J.W. et al. Efficacy and safety of extended release metoprolol succinate in hypertensive children 6 to 16 years of age: a clinical trial experience. J Pediatr 2007;150(2):134-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.09.034
86. Poirier L., Lacourcière Y. The evolving role of β-adrenergic receptor blockers in managing hypertension. Can J Cardiol 2012;28:334-340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjca.2012.04.001
87. Poirier L., Tobe S.W. Contemporary use of beta-blocker: clinical relevance of subclassification. Can J Cardiol 2014;30:S9-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjca.2013.12.001
88. Gomez AB, Healy M, Donne GD, Bentley S, Makhecha S, Daubeney P, Naqvi N, Till J, Wong L. P10 Initiation of bisoprolol in paediatric patients – experience from a specialist paediatric cardiac centre. Arch Dis Child. 2023;108(5):5. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2023-NPPG.9
89. National high blood pressure education program working group on hypertension control in children and adolescents. The fourth report on the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2004; 114(Suppl 2):555-76. PMID: 15286277.
90. Wühl E, Calpe J, Drożdż D, Erdine S, Fernandez-Aranda F, Hadjipanayis A, Hoyer PF, Jankauskiene A, Jiménez-Murcia S, Litwin M, Mancia G, Mazur A, Pall D, Seeman T, Sinha MD, Simonetti G, Stabouli S and Lurbe E (2023) Joint statement for assessing and managing high blood pressure in children and adolescents: Chapter 2. How to manage high blood pressure in children and adolescents. Front. Pediatr. 11:1140617. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2023.1140617
91. Daugherty S.L., Powers J.D., Magid D.J., Tavel H.M., Masoudi F.A., Margolis K.L. Incidence and prognosis of resistant hypertension in hypertensive patients. Circulation 2012;125:1635–1642. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.068064
92. Narayan H., Webb D.J. New evidence supporting the use of mineralocorticoid receptor blockers in drugresistant hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep 2016;18(5):34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11906-016-0643-8
93. Williams B., MacDonald T.M., Morant S., Webb D., Sever P., McInnes G. et al. Spironolactone versus placebo, bisoprolol, and doxazosin to determine the optimal treatment or drug-resistant hypertension (PATHWAY-2): a randomised, doubleblind, crossover trial. Lancet 2015;386(10008):2059-2068. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00257-3
94. Hajizadeh N, Assadi F. Resistant hypertension: current status, future challenges. Int J Prev Med. 2014 Mar;5(Suppl 1):S21-4. PMID: 24791187; PMCID: PMC3990922.
95. Vaidyanathan B. Is there a role for carvedilol in the management of pediatric heart failure? A meta analysis and e-mail survey of expert opinion. Ann Pediatr Cardiol. 2009 Jan;2(1):74-8. PMID: 20300274; PMCID: PMC2840768. https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-2069.52816
96. Flynn JT, Mitsnefes M, Pierce C, et al; Chronic Kidney Disease in Children Study Group. Blood pressure in children with chronic kidney disease: a report from the Chronic Kidney Disease in Children study. Hypertension. 2008;52(4):631-637. https://doi.org/10.1161/hypertensionaha.108.110635
97. Reynolds B.C., Roem J.L., Sing Ng D.K., Matsuda-Abedini M., Flynn J.T., Furth S.L., Warady B.A., Parekh R.S. Association of Time-Varying Blood Pressure With Chronic Kidney Disease Progression in Children//JAMA Netw Open. 2020 Feb;3(2):e1921213. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.21213
98. Gartenmann A.C., Fossali E., von Vigier R.O., Simonetti G., Schmidtko J., Edefonti A., et al. Better renoprotective effect of angiotensin II antagonist compared to dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker in childhood. Kidney Int 2003;64(4):1450-1454. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1755.2003.00238.x
99. do Vale Gonçalves, C., Soares, H., & Guimarães, H. (2019). Neonatal hypertension: focus on diagnosis and therapy. Journal of Pediatric and Neonatal Individualized Medicine (JPNIM), 8(2), e080207. https://doi.org/10.7363/080207
100. Lande MB, Flynn JT. Treatment of hypertension in children and adolescents. Pediatr Nephrol. 2009 Oct;24(10):1939-49. Epub 2007 Aug 10. PMID: 17690916; PMCID: PMC2756388. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-007-0573-4
101. Baracco R, Mattoo TK Pediatric hypertensive emergencies. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2014;16(8):456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11906-014-0456-6
102. Patel NH, Romero SK, Kaelber DC. Evaluation and management of pediatric hypertensive crises: hypertensive urgency and hypertensive emergencies. Open Access Emerg Med. 2012;4:85-92. https://doi.org/10.2147/oaem.s32809
103. Siddiqi N., Shatat I.F. Antihypertensive agents: a long way to safe drug prescribing in children. Pediatr Nephrol. 2020 Nov;35(11):2049-2065. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-019-04314-7
104. Hammer GB, Lewandowski A, Drover DR, et al. Safety and efficacy of sodium nitroprusside during prolonged infusion in pediatric patients. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2015;16(5):397-403. https://doi.org/10.1097/pcc.0000000000000383
105. Tabbutt S., Nicolson S.C., Adamson P.C. et al. The safety, efficacy, and pharmacokinetics of esmolol for blood pressure control immediately after repair of coarctation of the aorta in infants and children: a multicenter, double-blind, randomized trial. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2008;136(2):321-328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcvs.2007.09.086
106. Yang W.C., Zhao L.L., Chen C.Y., Wu Y.K.,Chang Y..J, Wu. H.P. First-attack pediatric hypertensive crisis presenting to the pediatric emergency department. BMC Pediatr . 2012 Dec 31:12:200. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2431-12-200
107. Thompson M,Dana T,Bougatsos C, Blazina I, Norris SL. Screening for hypertension in children and adolescents to prevent cardiovascular disease. Pediatrics. 2013;131(3):490-525. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-3523
108. Shaibakova L.R., Melititskaya A.V., Karamova I.M., Yakovleva L.V. Early prevention programs to the problems of arterial hypertension in children and adolescents. Bulletin of the All-Russian Scientific Center. 2007;3(55):45-47. (In Russ.)
109. Tran A.H., Urbina E.M. Rationale and Best Practices for Pediatric Cardiology Prevention Programs. Can J Cardiol. 2020 Sep;36(9):1541-1544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjca.2020.03.006
110. Couch SC, Saelens BE, Levin L, Dart K,Falciglia G, Daniels SR. The efficacy of a clinic-based behavioral nutrition intervention emphasizing a DASH-type diet for adolescents with elevated blood pressure. J Pediatr. 2008;152(4):494-501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2007.09.022
111. Ponomarenko G.N., Kovlen D.V. Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine. Evidence-Based Clinical Guidelines. Edited by A.N. Razumov. Moscow: Nauka, 2020. (In Russ.)
112. Razumov A.N. Sanatorium-resort treatment: national guidelines. Edited by Razumov A.N., Starodubov V.I., Ponomarenko G.N. Moscow: GEOTAR-Media, 2021. 752 p. (In Russ.)
113. Belokon N.A., Kuberger M.B. Diseases of the heart and blood vessels in children: A guide for doctors: In 2 volumes, V.1. Moscow: "Medicine", 1987. Pp.317-319. (In Russ.)
Review
For citations:
Leontyeva I.V., Kislyak O.A., Aleksandrov A.A., Ushakova S.A., Aksenova M.E., Balykova L.A., Kozlova L.V., Kovalev I.A., Kurganova A.V., Nikitina I.L., Plotnikova I.V., Rozanov V.B., Sadykova D.I. Arterial hypertension in children. Clinical guidelines 2025. Systemic Hypertension. 2025;22(4):5-58. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.38109/2075-082X-2025-4-5-58
Views:
3766
JATS XML
Email this article 